Religion
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Vietnam has no official state religion, meaning that the state and religion are formally separated.1 Moreover, the majority of Vietnamese do not identify with a religious affiliation (see Religious Demographics in Vietnam).2, 3 Despite this, religion has a long and rich history in Vietnam, having undergone significant revival over the last 50 years. The country is also religiously diverse, encompassing communities from mainstream global religions as well as many localised new religious movements.
The division of Vietnam in 1954 into the North and South drastically reshaped the nation's religious landscape. Many religious communities in the North fled southward due to policies established by the avowedly secularist North’s Communist government. On the other hand, Catholicism was the favoured religion of the South’s government, leading to tensions between other religious groups.4 The reunification of Vietnam under the North’s government saw anti-religious policies implemented across the country, such as restrictions on religious activities and the expulsion of foreign missionaries.
Some of these policies continue today, with the relationship between religious traditions and institutions and the state remaining complex and varied. The Vietnamese state maintains control over the organisation of religious groups. All religious institutions must register themselves with the government through complex registration processes,5 with religious movements like Cao Đài and Hòa Hảo only recently officially recognised.6 The government closely monitors and restricts religious activities, particularly among religious minorities.5
On the other hand, religion has become a notable part of public and private life for many Vietnamese. The liberal reforms of Đổi Mới (‘Renovation’) in the 1980s helped revive religion in Vietnam, allowing for more religious freedom.7 The right to freedom of belief and religion, as well as the protection and respect of the state for such freedoms, is guaranteed under Article 24 of the Constitution (2013).1 Mainstream religions like Buddhism and Christianity continue to be revitalised, and local religious movements and folk traditions have become celebrations of Vietnamese national and cultural identity.7, 8
Prominent among most Vietnamese is a sense of connection between the world of the living and the deceased.7 Major religions have many events commemorating the deceased, such as the Buddhist event of ‘Hungry Ghost Festival’ (Vu Lan) and the Catholic remembrance of Vietnamese martyrs at Va Lang. Vietnamese folk and new religious movements such as Cao Đài, Hòa Hảo and Ðạo Mẫu often feature spirit veneration, communication or possession. Most notably, nearly all Vietnamese participate in ancestor veneration or commemorate the death anniversaries (ngày giỗ) of past loved ones. Such practices have offered many Vietnamese ways of understanding collective and personal hardships, atrocities and loss experienced throughout the 20th century.
Religious Demographics of Vietnam
In Vietnam, defining ‘religion’ (tôn giáo) is complex,9 in part due to state influence and social perceptions of what constitutes ‘religion’.The Vietnamese government officially recognises 38 ‘religious organisations’ affiliated with 16 distinct ‘religious traditions’.3 To be officially recognised by the state, a religious organisation must be registered for a minimum of 20 years.4 Any denominations outside of these are not registered or recognised by the government.3 Some Vietnamese are reluctant to formally record religious affiliation for concerns of adverse consequences.3 However, it is estimated that 90% practice some kind of religion, registered or otherwise,3 with many participating in folk practices such as ancestor veneration.10
Because of such complexities, accurate data on religious affiliation in Vietnam is difficult to reliably obtain.7 According to the 2019 Census, 13.7% of the population identified with a religious affiliation.2 The largest identified affiliation was Roman Catholic (6.1%), followed by Buddhist (4.8%).2 Of the remaining religiously affiliated population reported in the 2019 Census, 1.0% identified as Protestant, 1.0% with Hòa Hảo, 0.6% with Cao Đài, and 0.2% with some other religion.2
More recent data gathered in 2021 by the Vietnam Government Committee for Religious Affairs suggests significant shifts in religious affiliation.3 Most notably, the total population identifying with a religious affiliation has increased to 27%, with Buddhism now the largest at 13.3%, followed by Roman Catholicism at 6.6%.3 On the other hand, survey data gathered by the Pew Research Center suggests that 38% identify as Buddhist and 10% identify as Christian (broadly defined).10
Buddhism in Vietnam
Buddhism, referred to as Đạo Phật (‘The Way of the Buddha’) or Phật Giáo (‘The Buddha’s Teaching’), has been present and culturally influential in Vietnam for many centuries. While the early history of Buddhism in Vietnam is unclear,11 various forms of Buddhism have existed in Southeast Asia for approximately 2,000 years.12 The American War (1964–1975) had profound effects on all Vietnamese religious communities, with many Buddhist institutions and individuals facing persecution. One of the most widely regarded Buddhists of the 20th century, Thích Nhất Hạnh, lived in exile for several decades due to his non-violent resistance and peace activism against the war.13
In 1981, some years after the war, the Vietnamese government brought together nine Buddhist schools and associations into the Vietnamese Buddhist Sangha to act as an official national Buddhist organisation.11, 8 However, not all Buddhist groups joined, contributing to tensions between the state and monastic institutions. For instance, the Vietnamese Buddhist Sangha continues to manage Buddhist material and educational properties in the country, but the state strictly monitors religious activities such as ordination.8, 1 Meanwhile, other Buddhist organisations, such as the Unified Buddhist Church of Vietnam, are not recognised by the Vietnamese government and continue to operate in exile.2, 1
Buddhism in Vietnam is diverse, partly influenced by geopolitics and ethnicity.12 Today, Mahāyāna Buddhism is the most influential and widely practised form of Buddhism (especially among the Kinh (Việt) ethnic majority).3 The most common Mahāyāna traditions are Pure Land Buddhism (Tịnh Độ Tông) and Zen Buddhism (Thiền Tông).12, 8 Vietnam is also home to Theravāda Buddhism (approximately 1% of the population), found mostly among Khmer communities in the South.8, 3 A further 1% identify with Hòa Hảo, a Vietnamese new religious movement which finds its origins in Buddhism (see Vietnamese New Religious Movements).3
Popular Buddhist Practice in Vietnam
Despite being home to many Buddhist communities and traditions, Vietnamese Buddhism is largely non-sectarian and tends to incorporate different Buddhist and non-Buddhist elements.14 The practice of Vietnamese Buddhism among laypersons tends to be mostly devotional,12 which broadly refers to practices and rituals done out of respect and veneration towards the Buddha (Śākyamuni) and various other buddhas (phật) and bodhisattvas (bồ tát). Some of the most popular in Vietnam include: Bhaiṣajyaguru (Dược Sư Phật, the ‘Medicine Buddha’), Amitābha (A Di Đà Phật), Guānyīn (Quan Âm) and Kṣitigarbha (Địa Tạng).45 The goal of these practices is often the accumulation of merit (phuóc), as well as good fortune, health or protection.
Devotional practices tend to be based on personal preference. Individuals participate in a range of activities, such as bowing, giving offerings (such as flowers or fruits) to particular buddhas and bodhisattvas housed in altars at home or in temples, chanting, undertaking pilgrimage and commemorating important events. Some Vietnamese lay Buddhists may also participate in group activities such as prayer services for peace (cầu an), repentance services (sám hối), and taking various vows of ethical conduct.14, 12 Those more devout in their practice often participate in chanting services at temples multiple times a month, with such levels of devotion most common among laywomen.12
As part of visiting temples, lay Buddhists also engage in other ‘non-canonical’ practices with Buddhist monastics. These include healing rituals, fortune telling, protective rituals (including protective amulets), rituals to remove bad luck, spirit possession or exorcisms and astrology.8, 12 Such practices contribute to the unique blend of Buddhism with other local and foreign traditions in Vietnam.
Confucianism and Daoism in Vietnam
Due to Buddhism’s historical movements and Vietnam’s geographic and historical connections with China, Vietnamese Buddhism tends to incorporate elements of Confucianism (Nho Giáo or Không Giáo, ‘The Teaching of Confucius’) and Daoism (Đạo Giáo, ‘The Teaching of the Way’).15 Together, these three traditions are known as the Tam Giáo, ‘The Three Teachings’.16 Thus, it is often difficult to demarcate Buddhism, Confucianism and Daoism as separate religious affiliations in Vietnam.
The influence of Confucianism is most notable in the concept of filial piety (hiếu), which refers to the respect and reverence one should hold towards their parents, and by extension, their elders.17 Adult children are thought to have an inherent duty to serve, respect and care for their parents, elders and ancestors, both in life and death. Filial piety is particularly evident in ancestor veneration and the commemoration of death anniversaries (ngày giỗ). One of the most popular Buddhist festivals is the ‘Hungry Ghost Festival’ (Vu Lan), during which Buddhists of varying levels of devotion make offerings to past relatives and ancestors, as well as ‘hungry ghost’ (ma đói) spirits.18, 14
While Daoism is generally not followed as a separate formal religion in Vietnam,19 Daoist ideas and practices are integrated into many Vietnamese cultural and popular Buddhist practices. For instance, Buddhist altars may bear offerings to the five elements (ngũ hành) of wood (mộc), fire (hoả), earth (thổ), metal (kim) and water (thủy).20 Various divinities and deities from the Daoist pantheon feature in Buddhist temples.16 Other Daoist concepts such as yin (âm) and yang (dương) as well as qì (khí) are commonly found in perspectives of health, particularly in the Vietnamese practice of traditional Chinese medicine (thuốc Bắc).
Christianity in Vietnam
Catholicism in Vietnam
Christianity, specifically Catholicism (Đạo Công Giáo), was introduced to Vietnam in the 16th century. More sustained missionary activity occurred in the early 17th century by Portuguese Jesuits and some Spanish Franciscans.21, 22 While early missionary activity in Vietnam did not collaborate with imperial powers, many Vietnamese at the time associated Christianity with colonisation.21 In the 18th century, many Christians were persecuted, which led to requests for political intervention by France.22, 7 Vietnam became a French colony in 1884, and 50 years later (1933), the Church appointed its first Vietnamese bishop, Nguyễn Bá Tòng.21, 22
The division of, and subsequent war in, Vietnam (1954) reshaped Christianity in the country. Vietnamese Catholics from the North fled to the South due to persecution by the Communist regime, which had lasting impacts on the church’s structure.21, 23 Meanwhile, the South welcomed the newly migrated clergy and laity despite lacking resources to manage the ongoing influx.23 The reunification of the country in 1976 led to restrictions on missionary and religious activity, with many clergy imprisoned or sent to 're-education centres'.7, 21 Though the government of Vietnam has relaxed many policies towards the Catholic Church, it continues to closely limit and control various activities, such as ordination, processions and pilgrimages, construction of churches, and the dissemination of Catholic teachings.24
In terms of popular practice, many Vietnamese Christians participate in devotional activities towards Mother Mary.10, 21 Marian devotion is often connected to the site of La Vang, where apparitions of Mary are said to have occurred in the late 1700s. Because of this, Mary is commonly referred to as ‘Our Lady of La Vang’ (Đức Mẹ La Vang). A century later (1885), hundreds of Vietnamese Catholics were martyred at the site.21 Today, Va Lang is an important pilgrimage site of devotion to both Mother Mary and the canonised martyrs. Many Vietnamese Catholics also participate in ancestor veneration since the Catholic Church allowed for the veneration of ancestors as a national tradition of Vietnam in the 1980s.8
Protestantism in Vietnam
Protestantism (Đạo Tin Lành or Kháng Cách) first entered Vietnam through missionaries from France and America in the early 20th century.21 The first Protestant church, the Christian and Missionary Alliance, was established in 1911.22 Several other denominations emerged in the South during the American War.21 Though experiencing a turbulent relationship with the state, the recent granting of legal status in 2010 to nine Protestant churches representing different traditions has seen a marked growth in Protestant Vietnamese Christians.8
Today, Protestantism is considered to be the fastest-growing religious affiliation in the country,7 with an estimated growth of 160,000 adherents in 1975 to 1.2 million in 2021.24, 3 Major Protestant denominations include the Evangelical Church of Vietnam, Pentecostal, Baptist, Methodist, Mennonite, and Jehovah’s Witness.7 Based on religious affiliation estimates, approximately two-thirds of Protestants identify as belonging to an ethnic minority, including those from the Northwest Highlands (Hmông, Dzao, Thái, and others) and in the Central Highlands (Êđê, Gia Rai, Xê Đăng, and Mường, among others).3 Protestant churches are also active in many urban areas and are known for their charitable activities.9, 8
Vietnamese Folk Religions, Beliefs and Practices
Spirits (Thần Thánh)
One of the most common beliefs among Vietnamese people is the existence of spirits (thần) who live alongside humans. These spirits, which can be either benevolent or malevolent, are thought to influence the lives of people.20 The relationship between spirits and humans depends on mutual care and assistance. For example, individuals will offer food to certain spirits who, in return, give protection and security.
While some spirits are thought to be the souls of ancestors or recently deceased people, others are nature spirits that inhabit the environment (e.g., trees, mountains, etc.).20 Some thần are worshipped across particular regions of Vietnam, or throughout the country, while others are localised spirits. For example, villages in Vietnam are thought to have a tutelary spirit (thánh hoàng). Therefore, an individual’s perception of spirits may be different depending on which specific area they come from.
The aim of ritual activities towards spirits can differ depending on the type of spirit. For instance, prayers and offerings are made to specific spirits to promote good health and fortune, family unity and community harmony.25, 12 On the other hand, the worship of certain spirits, such as hungry ghosts (ma đói), is an attempt at appeasement.20, 12 If such spirits are not placated through worship, they are thought to bring misfortune to that person.
Worship practices towards spirits can take place in a variety of settings. For instance, ritual activities in Buddhist temples may include worshipping or supplicating spirits and other special beings (e.g., buddhas and bodhisattvas).12 While worship towards spirits can happen in many religious temples and spaces, worship may also occur at smaller shrines and altars. Rituals taking place at shrines and altars in the family home are often related to the worship of ancestral spirits.
Ancestor Veneration
Ancestor veneration and worship refer to practices that honour the spirits (thần) of deceased ancestors (tổ tiên) and relatives through various tributary rituals. The practice of ancestor worship is based on the Confucian concept of filial piety (hiếu), with the relationships of a child to their parent and living relatives to their deceased ancestors being foundational to the worldview of many Vietnamese. Most people in Vietnam practice some kind of ancestor veneration irrespective of their religious identity. Though particularly common among Vietnamese Buddhists, many Vietnamese Catholics and non-religious Vietnamese practice ancestor veneration.10, 8
Ancestral altars can be found in the homes of many Vietnamese people (usually those who are of the Việt ethnic majority).20, 10 Such altars typically contain pictures of deceased family members alongside offerings of incense, flowers, fruit and water.7 Though some people may honour their ancestors at the home ancestral altar every day, ancestor veneration most commonly takes place during the death anniversary (giỗ) of a family member, as well as on the 1st and 15th days of the lunar month, and especially during the lunar new year.7, 26 On these days, people may visit nearby pagodas or family gravesites to perform gravesite maintenance (also known as ‘tomb sweeping’).10
Vietnamese New Religious and Folk Movements
There are several major folk religions or new religious movements originating from Vietnam. Many of these movements incorporate and adapt elements from various religious and spiritual worldviews, especially Buddhism, Daoism, Confucianism and spirit communication.27 Some of these emerged as local grassroots movements with complex histories related to Vietnam’s political history.20 For instance, Cao Đài and Hòa Hảo emerged in the early 20th century in the South. Both of these movements have only recently been officially recognised by the Vietnamese government, reflecting their tenuous relationship with the state.6
Cao Đài
Cao Đài is a Vietnamese new religious movement that began in South Vietnam in the 1920s. The movement was founded by Ngô Văn Chiêu, an official of the French colonial administration who is said to have come into contact with the supreme spirit god 'Cao Đài' through séances.28 This supreme god is pictorially represented through the religion’s most widely recognised symbol, the ‘Great Eye’ (Thiên Nhãn).29 Originally, the organisational structure of Cao Đài was inspired by the Catholic Church, containing a pope (giáo tông) and cardinals.28 However, this later split into several sects, with the current largest sect’s ‘Holy See’ (Tòa Thánh) located Tây Ninh province.7, 30
Cao Đài adapts and incorporates aspects of various other ‘mainstream’ religions, such as Buddhism, Daoism, Confucianism and Christianity, to present a codified and unified tradition and theology.31, 32 This is particularly noticeable in the figures and deities that appear as saints, such as the Buddha, Quan Âm (Buddhism), Quan Công (Chinese folk deity), Lý Thái Bạch (Chinese poet), Lão Tử (Laozi, Daoism), Khổng Tử (Confucius), Tôn Trung Sơn (Sun Yat-Sen, the Republic of China’s first head of state), as well as Western figures such as Jesus Christ (Christianity), Jeanne d’Arc (Christianity) and Victor Hugo (French writer).31 Other major beliefs and practices include vegetarianism, adhering to the principle of non-violence, and ritual prayer multiple times a day.7, 15
Hòa Hảo
Hòa Hảo is a Vietnamese new religious movement stemming from Buddhism. The religious movement integrates and reimagines aspects of Mahāyāna Buddhist thought with Vietnamese nationalism, and beliefs and practices related to Confucianism and ancestral spirits (thần).33, 26 Beginning in 1939 by Huỳnh Phú Sổ (who was later assassinated in 1947 by the Việt Minh), the religion is named after the founder’s birthplace, Hòa Hảo village, located in South Vietnam.7, 34 Huỳnh Phú Sổ emphasised that followers should abandon ‘superstitious’ practices and simplify ritual action in favour of more engagement in society.20
Today, a core aspect of Hòa Hảo is the idea of an individual being born with four debts (Tứ ân) that should be repaid over their lifetime: debt to the nation (ân đất nước), debt to parents and ancestors (ân tổ tiên cha mẹ), debt to the triple jewel of Buddhism (ân tam bảo), and debt to compatriots and humanity (ân đồng bào nhân loại).35, 6 Relatedly, Hòa Hảo is a lay-focused tradition, meaning there is no institutionalised order of monastics separate from laypeople.33 Religious practice tends to take place within the home or through charitable activity rather than in temples or monasteries.36, 35
Đạo Mẫu (Mother Goddess Worship)
Ðạo Mẫu is a specific tradition of spirit (thần) veneration primarily associated with maternal figures, including local, regional or national divinities, goddesses and historical figures.37 Major beliefs include the existence of a vast pantheon of spirits, such as ‘mother goddesses’ (thánh mẫu) and animal spirits, all thought to control specific aspects of the world such as the weather, agricultural fortune, and health, as well as Daoist ideas of complementary opposites exhibited through yin (âm) and yang (dương).37, 38 The tradition tends to be more prevalent in northern Vietnam.27, 37
While the tradition builds upon centuries of traditional veneration practices of prominent female figures and divinities, specific ritual practices have developed more recently.27 Commonly, followers of Ðạo Mẫu venerate these spirits through several ritual practices in temples or shrines.38 While praying or performing rituals to these spirits, individuals often make requests to these spirits such as safe travel, success and fortune, and good health.38 A major practice of Ðạo Mẫu is spirit possession, sometimes known in Vietnamese as hầu bóng or lên đồng. While there are local variations of spirit possession, the general practice is a formal ritual facilitated by a spirit medium in public or private temples.37, 38