Buddhism: Theravāda

Social Structure

Generally, there is no specific social structure that underpins a Theravādin Buddhist. This means that many may use secular services and may reside anywhere they wish. In countries with large Buddhist populations, there may be Buddhist-specific institutions that someone may use (such as a hospital or school). However, this is usually determined by personal preference.

Lay Buddhist community offer support to the monastic community by provision of the four requisites (food, robes, dwelling places and medicine). This allows monks and nuns to live as monastics and cultivate a meditative way of life. In turn, the monastics offer spiritual support and teachings to the lay community, to help guide them in their spiritual path.

Organisational Structure

Theravāda Buddhism’s organisational structure varies from region to region and sect to sect. The main organisational distinction is between the Saṅgha (community of monastics) and the laity.

Saṅgha (Community of Monastics)

The term ‘saṅgha’ refers to the Buddhist monastic community of monks or nuns. Meanwhile, ‘ubhato saṅgha’ refers explicitly to the ‘dual saṅgha’ of monks and nuns. Monastics can be distinguished from the laity by outward appearance, such as their shaved heads and donned robes. These choices in appearance minimise distraction from material goods (such as various hairstyles and clothing), and also act as symbols of renunciation. There is usually a hierarchy of seniority within the Saṅgha based on one’s years as an ordained monastic within the bhikkhu (monk) and bhikkhunī (nun) saṅghas, respectively.

• Bhikkhu: The Pāli term bhikkhu, commonly translated as ‘monk,’ refers to a fully ordained male member of the monastic order. In order to become a bhikkhu, the male is required to complete his time as a novice, and then complete a higher ordination which officiates him as a fully ordained monk.
• Bhikkhunī: The Pāli term bhikkhunī, usually translated as ‘nun’, refers to a fully ordained female member of the monastic order. Although the Buddha did establish a female monastic order, the order more or less died out in Theravādin countries nearly a millennium ago. Contemporary efforts to reestablish the bhikkhunī order have been somewhat successful but are not yet fully accepted in most Theravādin countries. However, there are now a growing number of bhikkhunī communities around the world.
• Sāmaṇera and Sāmaṇerī: Sāmaṇera (male) and sāmaṇerī (female) refers to novices (‘apprentice monk/nun’). More specifically, the terms refer to those who have completed a lower or temporary ordination by renouncing secular life in favour of accepting monastic life. This involves leaving one’s home, shaving one’s head, wearing a robe and taking refuge in the Triple Gem (the Buddha, Dhamma and Saṅgha). The youngest age someone can become a novice is usually around seven. By the age of 20, a novice is able to become a fully ordained monk or nun.
• Sikkhamānā: Unlike their male counterparts, females on the path to full ordination (to become a bhikkhunī) complete a period of being a sikkhamānā, a probationary period between sāmaṇerī and bhikkhunī.

Monastics generally follow rules of behaviour found in the Vinaya Piṭaka, including the ethical code of conduct and practices of austerity. As an ideal, the Saṅgha are expected to follow the strict code of conduct and serve as role models for the laity. However, the Saṅgha is diverse and there may be varying levels of austerities practised. For example, some members of the Saṅgha may have very limited possessions (such as a few robes, sandals, a sewing kit, an alms bowl and basic medicine). Although monks and nuns take vows of renunciation, the monastic institution enables the Saṅgha to avoid extreme ascetic practices.

Laity

The term ‘laity’ refers to lay or non-ordained Buddhist practitioners who are not part of the monastic order. In the Buddhist tradition, the laity are sometimes referred to as upāsaka (for men) and upāsikā (for women). This refers to people who are not monks, nuns or novices, yet undertake certain commitments (usually in the form of taking refuge in the Triple Gem and the Five Moral Precepts).

Lay members of Buddhist communities typically live a household life instead of a monastic life, often with less time for meditation and contemplation. Lay Buddhists are encouraged to cultivate wholesomeness in all their activities (good kamma), and observe moral precepts (usually a list of five or eight) as a path of practice. Meditation and study is encouraged too, if or when they can find time for this. Lay people may give donations (money, services or goods) to the Saṅgha and the monasteries. Some lay people may have a teacher (often a member of the Saṅgha) who offers spiritual advice on their journey.

Saṅgha and Laity Interactions

Monastics and the laity have engaged in various complementary religious practices throughout Buddhist history. These exchanges are a major component of Theravāda Buddhism. For example, the laity provide the basic necessities for monastics through the practice of almsgiving. Meanwhile, the duties of Buddhist monastics may include:

• Conducting certain ceremonies or chanting blessings on request, especially for funerals or other important times of transition in people’s lives.
• Teaching in schools or universities that may be attached to the monastery, or by invitation to other places of learning.
• Teaching on the Buddhist path and practice, including offering meditation guidance.
• Providing spiritual guidance to the laity.

In many countries with a strong Theravāda Buddhist influence, there is a religious practice between monastics and laity relating to merit. Generally, the Saṅgha is seen as providing a ‘field of merit’, which enables the laity to improve their spiritual condition. For example, providing food or offering cloth for robes to a monastic is believed to produce greater merit than gifts to other recipients. This helps generate good kamma with the possibility of enlightenment. Further, as a reciprocal exchange, monastics receive material support from the laity.