Japanese Culture

The primary author of this profile was Chara Scroope (2021) with updates made to the Core Concepts section in 2025.

• Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2021a). 4-digit level ANCP Ancestry Multi Response by Australia (UR) (No. 2021 Census of Population and Housing) [Data set]. ABS Census TableBuilder.
• Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2021b). People in Australia who were born in Japan [Data set]. 2021 Census Country of Birth QuickStats. https://www.abs.gov.au/census/find-census-data/quickstats/2021/6201_AUS
• Australian Embassy Tokyo. (2021a). Australia and Japan’s 107 sister-city/sister-state relationships. https://japan.embassy.gov.au/tkyo/sistercities.html
• Australian Embassy Tokyo. (2021b). Family Law—Child Custody in Japan. https://japan.embassy.gov.au/tkyo/familylaw.html
• Australian Trade and Investment Commission. (2021). Export Markets—Japan: Doing Business. https://www.austrade.gov.au/australian/export/export-markets/countries/japan/doing-business
• Bestor, T. C. (2001). Japan. In M. Ember & C. R. Ember (Eds.), Countries and Their Cultures: Denmark to Kyrgyzstan (Vol. 2, pp. 1140–1158). Macmillan Reference USA; Advameg. https://www.everyculture.com/Ja-Ma/Japan.html
• Borup, J. (2012). Contemporary Buddhist Priests and Clergy. In I. Prohl (Ed.), Handbook of Contemporary Japanese Religions (Vol. 6, pp. 107–132). Brill.
• Brown, J., & Brown, J. (2006). China, Japan and Korea: Culture and Customs. BookSurge.
• Brown, L. K. (2017). Ethnic Diversity and the Origins of the Japanese. Japan: Places, Images, Times, & Transformations. https://www.japanpitt.pitt.edu/essays-and-articles/history/ethnic-diversity-and-origins-japanese
• Bullock, B. (2020a). Etiquette. https://www.sljfaq.org/afaq/etiquette.html
• Bullock, B. (2020b). Names. https://www.sljfaq.org/afaq/names.html
• Center for Okinawan Studies. (2010). Okinawan Facts. University of Hawai’i. http://manoa.hawaii.edu/okinawa/wordpress/?page_id=78#majorobservances/
• Central Intelligence Agency. (2024). Japan. The World Factbook. https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/japan/
• Connell, J. (1993). Kitanai, Kitsui and Kiken: The Rise of Labour Migration to Japan. Economic & Regional Restructuring Research Unit, University of Sydney.
• Culture Crossing. (2017). Japan. Culture Crossing Guide. http://guide.culturecrossing.net/basics_business_student.php?id=104
• Culture Factor Group. (2023). Country comparison tool: Japan. https://www.theculturefactor.com/country-comparison-tool?countries=japan
• Deal, W., & Ruppert, B. (2015). A Cultural History of Japanese Buddhism. Wiley Blackwell.
• Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. (2021a). Australia-Japan bilateral relationship. https://www.dfat.gov.au/geo/japan/Pages/australia-japan-bilateral-relationship
• Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. (2021b). Japan country brief. Australian Government. https://www.dfat.gov.au/geo/japan/Pages/japan-country-brief
• Department of Home Affairs. (2018). Japan-born Community Information Summary (Census of Population and Housing 2016, Country Data Summary). Commonwealth of Australia. https://www.homeaffairs.gov.au/mca/files/2016-cis-japan.PDF
• Dolan, R. E., & Worden, R. L. (1992). Japan: A Country Study (5th ed). Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. https://www.loc.gov/resource/frdcstdy.japancountrystud00dola/
• Fukusawa, M. (2015). Immigration—Missing Link in Japanese History: Why Are There So Many Okinawan Immigrants? – Part 1 (M. Otsuka, Trans.). http://www.discovernikkei.org/en/journal/2015/8/18/okinawan-1/
• Giftypedia. (2017). Japan Gift Giving Customs. http://www.giftypedia.com/Japan_Gift_Giving_Customs
• Government of Japan. (1947). The Constitution of Japan. https://japan.kantei.go.jp/constitution_and_government_of_japan/constitution_e.html
• Hashimoto, A. (2017). War Memory in Japan. Japan: Places, Images, Times, & Transformations. https://www.japanpitt.pitt.edu/essays-and-articles/society/war-memory-japan
• Haugh, M. (2005). Asian Business Discourse(s)—What does ‘face’ mean to the Japanese? Understanding the import of ‘face’ in Japanese business interactions. In F. Bargiela-Chiappini & M. Gotti (Eds.), Asian Business Discourse(s) (pp. 211–240). Peter Lang.
• Hein, L. E., & Selden, M. (2003). Culture, Power and Identity in Contemporary Okinawa. In L. E. Hein & M. Selden (Eds.), Islands of Discontent: Okinawan Responses to Japanese and American Power (pp. 1–36). Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
• Hirai, N. (2020). Shintō. In Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shinto
• Hirata, K. (2008). Who Shapes the National Security Debate? Divergent Interpretations of Japan’s Security Role. Asian Affairs, 35(3), 123–151. https://doi.org/10.3200/AAFS.35.3.123-151
• Hyde, S. (2015, August 10). Japan’s way of remembering World War II still infuriates its neighbours. https://theconversation.com/japans-way-of-remembering-world-war-ii-still-infuriates-its-neighbours-45663
• International Monetary Fund. (2021). World Economic Outlook Database [Dataset]. https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2021/April/download-entire-database
• Ishikida, M. (2005). Toward Peace: War Responsibility, Postwar Compensation, and Peace Movements and Education in Japan. iUniverse.
• Ito, H. (1889). The Constitution of the Empire of Japan (M. Ito, Trans.). In Commentaries on the constitution of the empire of Japan. Igirisu Hôritsu Gakkô. https://history.hanover.edu/texts/1889con.html
• Japan Book Publishers Association. (2017). An Introduction to Publishing in Japan 2017-2018. Japan Book Publishers Association. https://web.archive.org/web/20190203154323/http://jbpa.or.jp/en/pdf/pdf01.pdf
• Japan Guide. (2020). Public holidays and annual events in Japan. https://www.japan-guide.com/e/e2062.html
• JapanesePod101. (2019). Japanese hand gestures and body language. https://www.japanesepod101.com/blog/2019/08/16/japanese-body-gestures/
• JR Pass. (2019). A guide to Japanese etiquette. https://www.jrpass.com/blog/a-guide-to-japanese-etiquette
• Keown, D. (2004). A Dictionary of Buddhism (1st ed.). Oxford University Press.
• Kobayakawa, A. (2020). Japan’s Modernization and Discrimination: What are Buraku and Burakumin? Critical Sociology, 47(1), 111–132. https://doi.org/10.1177/0896920520915493
• Kopp, R. (2020). Defining Nemawashi. https://japanintercultural.com/free-resources/articles/defining-nemawashi/
• Lee, K., & Lew, Y. I. (2020). Korea: Korea Under Japanese Rule. In Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Korea/Korea-under-Japanese-rule
• Masai, Y., Latz, G., & Hijino, S. (2020). Japan: Daily life and social customs. https://www.britannica.com/place/Japan/Daily-life-and-social-customs
• McCurry, J. (2015, November 5). Same-sex couple receives Japan’s first “partnership” certificate. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/nov/05/same-sex-couples-japan-partnership-certificates
• Migrant Information Centre (Eastern Melbourne). (2021). Japanese Cultural Profile [Fact sheet]. https://miceastmelb.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/Japanese-Cultural-Profile-2021.pdf
• Ministry of Justice. (2008). The Nationality Law. http://www.moj.go.jp/ENGLISH/information/tnl-01.html
• Minority Rights Group International. (2018a). Japan: Ainu. https://minorityrights.org/minorities/ainu/
• Minority Rights Group International. (2018b). Japan: Burakumin (Buraku people). https://minorityrights.org/minorities/burakumin-buraku-people/
• Minority Rights Group International. (2018c). Japan: Koreans. https://minorityrights.org/minorities/koreans/
• Minority Rights Group International. (2018d). Japan: Ryukyuans (Okinawans). https://minorityrights.org/minorities/ryukyuans-okinawans/
• Moseley, C. (Ed.). (2010). UNESCO Atlas of the World’s Languages in Danger (3rd ed.). UNESCO Publishing. http://www.unesco.org/languages-atlas/index.php
• Museums Victoria. (2017). Immigration History from Japan to Victoria. Museums Victoria. https://origins.museumsvictoria.com.au/countries/japan/
• Nippon Hoso Kyokai [NHK]. (2018). How the religious consciousness and behaviour of Japanese people has changed. [In Japanese]. https://www.nhk.or.jp/bunken/research/yoron/pdf/20190401_7.pdf
• OECD. (2019a). Better Life Index: Japan. http://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/countries/japan/
• OECD. (2019b). Society at a Glance 2019: OECD Social Indicators. OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/soc_glance-2019-en
• OECD. (2019c). Under Pressure: The Squeezed Middle Class—How does Japan compare? (Under Pressure: The Squeezed Middle Class). OECD Publishing. https://www.oecd.org/japan/Middle-class-2019-Japan.pdf
• OECD. (2021). Education GPS. https://gpseducation.oecd.org/
• Osawa, M., & Kingston, J. (2015). Risk and Consequences: The Changing Japanese Employment Paradigm. In F. Baldwin & A. Allison (Eds.), Japan: The Precarious Future (pp. 58–86). New York University Press.
• Pew Research Center. (2015). Americans, Japanese: Mutual Respect 70 Years After the End of WWII. https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2015/04/07/americans-japanese-mutual-respect-70-years-after-the-end-of-wwii/
• Porcu, E. (2017). Contemporary Japanese Buddhist Traditions. In M. Jerryson (Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Contemporary Buddhism (pp. 122–140). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199362387.013.48
• ProQuest. (2017). Japan. ProQuest & Brigham Young University. https://proquest.libguides.com/culturegrams
• Ray, M. (2017). Pacific War. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pacific-War
• Ray, M. (2020). Battle of Okinawa. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Battle-of-Okinawa
• Reader, I. (2006). Japanese New Religious Movements. In M. Juergensmeyer (Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Global Religions (pp. 141–154). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195137989.003.0015
• Rots, A. P. (2017). Shinto, Nature and Ideology in Contemporary Japan: Making Sacred Forests. Bloomsbury Academic.
• Sawa, Y. (2019). Digital New Report: Japan. https://www.digitalnewsreport.org/survey/2019/japan-2019/
• Semuels, A. (2017, September 7). Japan is no place for single mothers. The Atlantic. https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2017/09/japan-is-no-place-for-single-mothers/538743/
• Shimazono, S. (2006). Traditional Japanese Religious Society. In M. Juergensmeyer (Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Global Religions (pp. 133–140). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195137989.003.0014
• Statistics Bureau of Japan. (2020). Statistical Handbook of Japan 2020. Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications. http://www.stat.go.jp/english/data/handbook/pdf/2020all.pdf
• Statistics Bureau of Japan. (2021). Culture: Religious Organisations, Clergymen and Adherents (Nos. 26–15) [Dataset]. Japan Statistical Yearbook 2021. http://www.stat.go.jp/english/data/nenkan/70nenkan/1431-26.html
• Stokes, B., & Devlin, K. (2018). Despite Rising Economic Confidence, Japanese See Best Days Behind Them and Say Children Face a Bleak Future. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2018/11/12/countries-views-of-japan-abe-japanese-views-of-china/
• Sugimoto, Y. (2021). An Introduction to Japanese Society (5th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
• Tamura, T., Bergsten, C. F., & Choi, I. (2003). The Korean Diaspora in the World Economy: The Status and Role of Ethnic Koreans in the Japanese Economy. Peterson Institute for International Economics. https://www.piie.com/publications/chapters_preview/365/5iie3586.pdf
• The Yomiuri Shimbun. (2025, May 3). Yomiuri Poll: 60％ in Favor of Amending Japan Constitution; Figure in 60％ Range for Fourth Consecutive Year. The Japan News. https://japannews.yomiuri.co.jp/politics/politics-government/20250503-252349/
• Transparency International. (2024). Corruption Perceptions Index 2023 (Annual CPI Report). https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi/2023
• Tricycle. (2019). What is the difference between a Zen monk, nun, and priest? https://tricycle.org/beginners/buddhism/difference-between-zen-monk-nun-and-priest/
• Umeda, S. (2019). Japan: New Ainu Law Becomes Effective. https://www.loc.gov/item/global-legal-monitor/2019-08-05/japan-new-ainu-law-becomes-effective/
• Watanabe, A., Masai, Y., & Latz, G. (2020). Japan: Land. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Japan#ref23230
• World Bank. (2016). Japan [Dataset]. https://data.worldbank.org/country/japan